Oliver L. Haimson
Daniel Delmonaco
Peipei Nie
Skip Abstract Section
Abstract
Social media sites use content moderation to attempt to cultivate safe spaces with accurate information for their users. However, content moderation decisions may not be applied equally for all types of users, and may lead to disproportionate censorship related to people's genders, races, or political orientations. We conducted a mixed methods study involving qualitative and quantitative analysis of survey data to understand which types of social media users have content and accounts removed more frequently than others, what types of content and accounts are removed, and how content removed may differ between groups. We found that three groups of social media users in our dataset experienced content and account removals more often than others: political conservatives, transgender people, and Black people. However, the types of content removed from each group varied substantially. Conservative participants' removed content included content that was offensive or allegedly so, misinformation, Covid-related, adult, or hate speech. Transgender participants' content was often removed as adult despite following site guidelines, critical of a dominant group (e.g., men, white people), or specifically related to transgender or queer issues. Black participants' removed content was frequently related to racial justice or racism. More broadly, conservative participants' removals often involved harmful content removed according to site guidelines to create safe spaces with accurate information, while transgender and Black participants' removals often involved content related to expressing their marginalized identities that was removed despite following site policies or fell into content moderation gray areas. We discuss potential ways forward to make content moderation more equitable for marginalized social media users, such as embracing and designing specifically for content moderation gray areas.
- Julia Angwin, ProPublica, and Hannes Grassegger. 2017. Facebook's Secret Censorship Rules Protect White Men From Hate Speech But Not Black Children. https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-hate-speech-censorship-internal-documents-algorithmsGoogle Scholar
- Carolina Are. 2020. How Instagram's algorithm is censoring women and vulnerable users but helping online abusers. Feminist Media Studies, Vol. 20, 5 (July 2020), 741--744. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2020.1783805 Publisher: Routledge _eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2020.1783805.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Carolina Are. 2021. The Shadowban Cycle: an autoethnography of pole dancing, nudity and censorship on Instagram. Feminist Media Studies, Vol. 0, 0 (May 2021), 1--18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2021.1928259 Publisher: Routledge _eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2021.1928259.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Paul M. Barrett and J. Grant Sims. 2021. False Accusation: The Unfounded Claim that Social Media Companies Censor Conservatives. Technical Report. NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b6df958f8370af3217d4178/t/6011e68dec2c7013d3caf3cb/1611785871154/NYU+False+Accusation+report_FINAL.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Jeffrey Layne Blevins, Ezra Edgerton, Don P. Jason, and James Jaehoon Lee. 2021. Shouting Into the Wind: Medical Science versus "B. S." in the Twitter Maelstrom of Politics and Misinformation About Hydroxychloroquine. Social Media+Society, Vol. 7, 2 (April 2021), 20563051211024977. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211024977 Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Danielle Blunt, Emily Coombes, Shanelle Mullin, and Ariel Wolf. 2020. Posting into the Void. Technical Report. Hacking//Hustling.Google Scholar
- Danielle Blunt and Ariel Wolf. 2020. Erased: The Impact of FOSTA-SESTA & the Removal of Backpage. Technical Report. Hacking//Hustling.Google Scholar
- Catalina Botero-Marino, Jamal Greene, Michael W. McConnell, and Helle Thorning-Schmidt. 2020. Opinion textbar We Are a New Board Overseeing Facebook. Here's What We'll Decide. The New York Times (May 2020). https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/06/opinion/facebook-oversight-board.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Carolyn Bronstein. 2020. Pornography, Trans Visibility, and the Demise of Tumblr. TSQ: Transgender Studies Quarterly, Vol. 7, 2 (May 2020), 240--254. https://doi.org/10.1215/23289252--8143407 Publisher: Duke University Press.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Taina Bucher. 2018. If. .. Then: Algorithmic Power and Politics. Oxford University Press. Google-Books-ID: 2GdaDwAAQBAJ.Google Scholar
- Robyn Caplan. 2018. Content or Context Moderation? Artisanal, Community-Reliant, and Industrial Approaches. Technical Report. Data&Society. https://datasociety.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/DS_Content_or_Context_Moderation.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Eshwar Chandrasekharan, Umashanthi Pavalanathan, Anirudh Srinivasan, Adam Glynn, Jacob Eisenstein, and Eric Gilbert. 2017. You Can't Stay Here: The Efficacy of Reddit's 2015 Ban Examined Through Hate Speech. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact., Vol. 1, CSCW (Dec. 2017), 31:1--31:22. https://doi.org/10.1145/3134666Google ScholarDigital Library
- Eshwar Chandrasekharan, Mattia Samory, Shagun Jhaver, Hunter Charvat, Amy Bruckman, Cliff Lampe, Jacob Eisenstein, and Eric Gilbert. 2018. The Internet's Hidden Rules: An Empirical Study of Reddit Norm Violations at Micro, Meso, and Macro Scales. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 2, CSCW (Nov. 2018), 1--25. https://doi.org/10.1145/3274301Google ScholarDigital Library
- Alexander Cheves. 2018. The Dangerous Trend of LGBTQ Censorship on the Internet. (Dec. 2018). https://www.out.com/out-exclusives/2018/12/06/dangerous-trend-lgbtq-censorship-internetGoogle Scholar
- Aymar Jean Christian, Faithe Day, Mark Díaz, and Chelsea Peterson-Salahuddin. 2020. Platforming Intersectionality: Networked Solidarity and the Limits of Corporate Social Media:. Social MediaGoogle ScholarCross Ref
- Society (Aug. 2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120933301 Publisher: SAGE PublicationsSage UK: London, England.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Danielle Keats Citron. 2014. Hate Crimes in Cyberspace. Harvard University Press.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Danielle Keats Citron and Helen Norton. 2011. Intermediaries and Hate Speech: Fostering Digital Citizenship for our Information Age. BUL Review (2011), 51.Google Scholar
- Ben Collins. 2021. Increasingly militant 'Parler refugees' and anxious QAnon adherents prep for doomsday. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/increasingly-militant-parler-refugees-anxious-qanon-adherents-prep-doomsday-n1254775Google Scholar
- Kate Crawford and Tarleton Gillespie. 2014. What is a flag for? Social media reporting tools and the vocabulary of complaint. New Media & Society (July 2014), 1--19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814543163Google ScholarCross Ref
- Cristina Criddle. 2020. Transgender users accuse TikTok of censorship. BBC News (Feb. 2020). https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51474114Google Scholar
- Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari. 1987. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. U of Minnesota Press. Google-Books-ID: C948Tsr72woC.Google Scholar
- Dolores Delgado Bernal. 1997. Chicana school resistance and grassroots leadership: providing an alternative history of the 1968 East Los Angeles blowouts. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
- Christina Dinar. 2021. The state of content moderation for the LGBTIQA+ community and the role of the EU Digital Services Act. Technical Report. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. 23 pages.Google Scholar
- Natasha Duarte, Emma Llansó, and Anna Loup. 2018. Mixed Messages? The Limits of Automated Social Media Content Analysis. In 2018 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency. https://cdt.org/files/2017/12/FAT-conference-draft-2018.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Stefanie Duguay, Jean Burgess, and Nicolas Suzor. 2018. Queer women's experiences of patchwork platform governance on Tinder, Instagram, and Vine. 16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856518781530Google ScholarCross Ref
- Elizabeth Dwoskin, Nitasha Tiku, and Heather Kelly. 2020. Facebook to start policing anti-Black hate speech more aggressively than anti-White comments, documents show. Washington Post (Dec. 2020). https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/12/03/facebook-hate-speech/Google Scholar
- Facebook. 2021 a. Community Standards. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/Google Scholar
- Facebook. 2021 b. Community Standards: Adult Nudity and Sexual Activity. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/adult_nudity_sexual_activityGoogle Scholar
- Facebook. 2021 c. Community Standards: False News. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/false_newsGoogle Scholar
- Facebook. 2021 d. Community Standards: Hate Speech. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/hate_speechGoogle Scholar
- Facebook. 2021 e. Community Standards: Violence and Incitement. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/credible_violenceGoogle Scholar
- Jenny Fan and Amy X. Zhang. 2020. Digital Juries: A Civics-Oriented Approach to Platform Governance. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '20). Association for Computing Machinery, Honolulu, HI, USA, 1--14. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376293Google ScholarDigital Library
- Jessica L. Feuston, Alex S. Taylor, and Anne Marie Piper. 2020. Conformity of Eating Disorders through Content Moderation. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 4, CSCW1 (May 2020), 040:1--040:28. https://doi.org/10.1145/3392845Google ScholarDigital Library
- Facebook for Media. [n.d.]. Working to Stop Misinformation and False News. https://www.facebook.com/formedia/blog/working-to-stop-misinformation-and-false-newsGoogle Scholar
- Electronic Frontier Foundation. 2019 a. EFF Project Shows How People Are Unfairly "TOSsed Out" By Platforms' Absurd Enforcement of Content Rules. https://www.eff.org/press/releases/eff-project-shows-how-people-are-unfairly-tossed-out-platforms-absurd-enforcementGoogle Scholar
- Electronic Frontier Foundation. 2019 b. What Tumblr's Ban on 'Adult Content' Actually Did. https://www.eff.org/tossedout/tumblr-ban-adult-contentGoogle Scholar
- Paulo Freire. 1970. Education for critical consciousness. Continuum Publishing Company, New York, NY, USA.Google Scholar
- Paulo Freire. 1973. Pedagogy of the oppressed. The Seabury Press, New York, NY, USA.Google Scholar
- Ahiza Garcia-Hodges. 2021. Apple App Store, Google Play suspend Parler pending better moderation. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/google-play-suspends-parler-until-app-develops-moderation-policies-n1253609Google Scholar
- Meira Gebel. 2020. Black Creators Say TikTok Still Secretly Hides Their Content. https://www.digitaltrends.com/social-media/black-creators-claim-tiktok-still-secretly-blocking-content/Google Scholar
- Ysabel Gerrard and Helen Thornham. 2020. Content moderation: Social media's sexist assemblages. New Media & Society, Vol. 22, 7 (July 2020), 1266--1286. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820912540 Publisher: SAGE Publications.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Tarleton Gillespie. 2017. Governance of and by platforms. In The SAGE Handbook of Social Media. SAGE, New York, 30.Google Scholar
- Tarleton Gillespie. 2018. Custodians of the Internet: Platforms, Content Moderation, and the Hidden Decisions That Shape Social Media. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
- Henry Giroux. 1983. Theories of reproduction and resistance in the new sociology of education: a critical analysis. Harvard Educational Review (1983).Google Scholar
- Kayla Gogarty, Spencer Silva, Carly Evans, and Media Matters. 2020. A new study finds that Facebook is not censoring conservatives despite their repeated attacks. Technical Report. https://www.mediamatters.org/facebook/new-study-finds-facebook-not-censoring-conservatives-despite-their-repeated-attacksGoogle Scholar
- Alessandra Gomes and Dennys e Thiago Dias Oliva Antonialli. 2019. Drag queens and Artificial Intelligence: should computers decide what is ?toxic' on the internet? http://www.internetlab.org.br/en/freedom-of-expression/drag-queens-and-artificial-intelligence-should-computers-decide-what-is-toxic-on-the-internet/Google Scholar
- James Grimmelmann. 2015. The Virtues of Moderation. Yale Journal of Law and Technology, Vol. 17 (2015), 42--109. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/yjolt17&i=42Google Scholar
- Jessica Guynn. 2017. Facebook apologizes to black activist who was censored for calling out racism. USA Today (Aug. 2017). https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2017/08/03/facebook-ijeoma-oluo-hate-speech/537682001/Google Scholar
- Jessica Guynn. 2019. Facebook while black: Users call it getting 'Zucked,' say talking about racism is censored as hate speech. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2019/04/24/facebook-while-black-zucked-users-say-they-get-blocked-racism-discussion/2859593002/Google Scholar
- Oliver L. Haimson. 2018. Social Media as Social Transition Machinery. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact., Vol. 2, CSCW (Nov. 2018), 63:1--63:27. https://doi.org/10.1145/3274332Google ScholarDigital Library
- Oliver L. Haimson, Jed R. Brubaker, Lynn Dombrowski, and Gillian R. Hayes. 2016. Digital Footprints and Changing Networks During Online Identity Transitions. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '16). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2895--2907. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858136Google ScholarDigital Library
- Oliver L. Haimson, Justin Buss, Zu Weinger, Denny L. Starks, Dykee Gorrell, and Briar Sweetbriar Baron. 2020. Trans Time: Safety, Privacy, and Content Warnings on a Transgender-Specific Social Media Site. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 4, CSCW2 (Oct. 2020), 124:1--124:27. https://doi.org/10.1145/3415195Google ScholarDigital Library
- Oliver L. Haimson, Avery Dame-Griff, Elias Capello, and Zahari Richter. 2019. Tumblr was a trans technology: the meaning, importance, history, and future of trans technologies. Feminist Media Studies (Oct. 2019), 1--17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2019.1678505Google ScholarCross Ref
- Oliver L. Haimson and Anna Lauren Hoffmann. 2016. Constructing and enforcing "authentic" identity online: Facebook, real names, and non-normative identities. First Monday, Vol. 21, 6 (June 2016). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v21i6.6791Google ScholarCross Ref
- Donna Haraway. 1988. Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies, Vol. 14, 3 (1988), 575--599. https://doi.org/10.2307/3178066 Publisher: Feminist Studies, Inc.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sandra G. Harding. 2004. The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies. Psychology Press. Google-Books-ID: qmSySHvIy5IC.Google Scholar
- Drew Harwell and Craig Timberg. 2019. Pro-Trump message board "quarantined' by Reddit following violent threats. Washington Post (June 2019). https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/06/26/pro-trump-message-board-quarantined-by-reddit-following-violent-threats/Google Scholar
- Sally Hines. 2019. The feminist frontier: on trans and feminism. Journal of Gender Studies, Vol. 28, 2 (Feb. 2019), 145--157. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1411791Google ScholarCross Ref
- Anna Lauren Hoffmann and Anne Jonas. 2017. Recasting Justice for Internet and Online Industry Research Ethics. In Internet Research Ethics for the Social Age: New Challenges, Cases, and Contexts, Michael Zimmer and Katharina Kinder-Kurlanda (Eds.). Peter Lang Publishing, 3--19.Google Scholar
- Twitter Inc. 2021. Permanent suspension of @realDonaldTrump. https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/company/2020/suspension.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Instagram. 2021 a. Combatting Misinformation on Instagram. https://about.instagram.com/blog/announcements/combatting-misinformation-on-instagramGoogle Scholar
- Instagram. 2021 b. Community Guidelines textbar Instagram Help Center. https://help.instagram.com/477434105621119?ref=ig_aboutGoogle Scholar
- Mike Isaac. 2020. Reddit, Acting Against Hate Speech, Bans ?The_Donald' Subreddit. The New York Times (June 2020). https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/29/technology/reddit-hate-speech.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Mike Isaac and Kellen Browning. 2020. Fact-Checked on Facebook and Twitter, Conservatives Switch Their Apps. The New York Times (Nov. 2020). https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/11/technology/parler-rumble-newsmax.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Tracy Jan and Elizabeth Dwoskin. 2017. A white man called her kids the n-word. Facebook stopped her from sharing it. Washington Post (July 2017). https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/for-facebook-erasing-hate-speech-proves-a-daunting-challenge/2017/07/31/922d9bc6--6e3b-11e7--9c15--177740635e83_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Shagun Jhaver, Darren Scott Appling, Eric Gilbert, and Amy Bruckman. 2019. "Did You Suspect the Post Would be Removed?": Understanding User Reactions to Content Removals on Reddit. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 3, CSCW (Nov. 2019), 192:1--192:33. https://doi.org/10.1145/3359294Google ScholarDigital Library
- Shagun Jhaver, Sucheta Ghoshal, Amy Bruckman, and Eric Gilbert. 2018. Online Harassment and Content Moderation: The Case of Blocklists. ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact., Vol. 25, 2 (March 2018), 12:1--12:33. https://doi.org/10.1145/3185593Google ScholarDigital Library
- Shan Jiang, Ronald E. Robertson, and Christo Wilson. 2019. Bias Misperceived:The Role of Partisanship and Misinformation in YouTube Comment Moderation. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, Vol. 13 (July 2019), 278--289. https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/3229Google ScholarCross Ref
- Shan Jiang, Ronald E. Robertson, and Christo Wilson. 2020. Reasoning about Political Bias in Content Moderation. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 34, 09 (April 2020), 13669--13672. https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v34i09.7117Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jeffrey M. Jones. 2021. LGBT Identification Rises to 5.6% in Latest U. S. Estimate. https://news.gallup.com/poll/329708/lgbt-identification-rises-latest-estimate.aspx Section: Politics.Google Scholar
- Ben Kew. 2018. Poll: Two-Thirds of Conservatives Don't Trust Facebook, Believe Social Media Censors Conservatives. https://www.breitbart.com/tech/2018/08/29/poll-two-thirds-of-conservatives-dont-trust-facebook-believe-social-media-censors-conservatives/Google Scholar
- Kate Klonick. 2020. The Facebook Oversight Board: Creating an Independent Institution to Adjudicate Online Free Expression. the yale law journal (2020), 82.Google Scholar
- Kate Klonick. 2021. Inside the Making of Facebook's Supreme Court. https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/inside-the-making-of-facebooks-supreme-courtGoogle Scholar
- Karen Kornbluh, Adrienne Goldstein, and Eli Weiner. 2020. New Study by Digital New Deal Finds Engagement with Deceptive Outlets Higher on Facebook Today Than Run-up to 2016 Election. Technical Report. The German Marshall Fund of the United States. https://www.gmfus.org/blog/2020/10/12/new-study-digital-new-deal-finds-engagement-deceptive-outlets-higher-facebook-todayGoogle Scholar
- Jessa Lingel. 2017. Digital Countercultures and the Struggle for Community 1 edition ed.). The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
- Jessa Lingel. 2019. The gentrification of the internet. https://culturedigitally.org/2019/03/the-gentrification-of-the-internet/Google Scholar
- Dottie Lux and Lil Miss Hot Mess. 2017. Facebook's Hate Speech Policies Censor Marginalized Users. Wired (Aug. 2017). https://www.wired.com/story/facebooks-hate-speech-policies-censor-marginalized-users/Google Scholar
- Brandeis Marshall. 2021. Algorithmic misogynoir in content moderation practice. Technical Report. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. 17 pages.Google Scholar
- Nataliez Martinez and Media Matters. 2018. Study: Analysis of top Facebook pages covering American political news. Technical Report. https://www.mediamatters.org/facebook/study-analysis-top-facebook-pages-covering-american-political-newsGoogle Scholar
- Natalie Martinez and Media Matters. 2019. Study: Facebook is still not censoring conservatives. Technical Report. https://www.mediamatters.org/facebook/study-facebook-still-not-censoring-conservativesGoogle Scholar
- Adrienne Massanari. 2017. #Gamergate and The Fappening: How Reddit's algorithm, governance, and culture support toxic technocultures. New Media & Society, Vol. 19, 3 (March 2017), 329--346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815608807Google ScholarCross Ref
- Peter McLaren. 1994. Life in schools: an introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education 2nd ed.). Longman, New York, NY, USA.Google Scholar
- Danaë Metaxa, Joon Sung Park, James A. Landay, and Jeff Hancock. 2019. Search Media and Elections: A Longitudinal Investigation of Political Search Results. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 3, CSCW (Nov. 2019), 129:1--129:17. https://doi.org/10.1145/3359231Google ScholarDigital Library
- Deirdre K. Mulligan, Daniel Kluttz, and Nitin Kohli. 2019. Shaping Our Tools: Contestability as a Means to Promote Responsible Algorithmic Decision Making in the Professions. SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3311894. Social Science Research Network, Rochester, NY. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3311894Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sarah Myers West. 2018. Censored, suspended, shadowbanned: User interpretations of content moderation on social media platforms. New Media & Society, Vol. 20, 11 (Nov. 2018), 4366--4383. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818773059Google ScholarCross Ref
- Lisa Nakamura. 2014. ?I WILL DO EVERYthing That Am Asked': Scambaiting, Digital Show-Space, and the Racial Violence of Social Media. Journal of Visual Culture, Vol. 13, 3 (Dec. 2014), 257--274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470412914546845 Publisher: SAGE Publications.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Viviane Namaste. 2000. Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People. University of Chicago Press. Google-Books-ID: Pq5jwRVbvY8C.Google Scholar
- Casey Newton. 2019. The real bias on social networks isn't against conservatives. https://www.theverge.com/interface/2019/4/11/18305407/social-network-conservative-bias-twitter-facebook-ted-cruzGoogle Scholar
- Casey Newton. 2021. Conservative social networks keep making the same mistake. https://www.platformer.news/p/conservative-social-networks-keepGoogle Scholar
- Ihudiya Finda Ogbonnaya-Ogburu, Angela D. R. Smith, Alexandra To, and Kentaro Toyama. 2020. Critical Race Theory for HCI. In Proceedings of ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 16.Google ScholarDigital Library
- onlinecensorship.org. [n.d.]. onlinecensorship.org - Submit Your Report. https://onlinecensorship.org/takedowns/newGoogle Scholar
- onlinecensorship.org. 2018. Offline-Online. https://onlinecensorship.org/content/infographicsGoogle Scholar
- John E Pachankis. 2007. The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 133, 2 (March 2007), 18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033--2909.133.2.328Google ScholarCross Ref
- Deokgun Park, Simranjit Sachar, Nicholas Diakopoulos, and Niklas Elmqvist. 2016. Supporting Comment Moderators in Identifying High Quality Online News Comments. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 12. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858389Google ScholarDigital Library
- Jessica A. Pater, Moon K. Kim, Elizabeth D. Mynatt, and Casey Fiesler. 2016. Characterizations of Online Harassment: Comparing Policies Across Social Media Platforms. In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Supporting Group Work - GROUP '16. ACM Press, Sanibel Island, Florida, USA, 369--374. https://doi.org/10.1145/2957276.2957297Google ScholarDigital Library
- Delroy L. Paulhus. 1991. Measurement and Control of Response Bias.Google Scholar
- Manoel Horta Ribeiro, Shagun Jhaver, Savvas Zannettou, Jeremy Blackburn, Emiliano De Cristofaro, Gianluca Stringhini, and Robert West. 2020. Does Platform Migration Compromise Content Moderation? Evidence from r/The_Donald and r/Incels. arXiv:2010.10397 [cs] (Oct. 2020). http://arxiv.org/abs/2010.10397 arXiv: 2010.10397.Google Scholar
- Sarah T Roberts. 2016. Commercial Content Moderation: Digital Laborers' Dirty Work. In Intersectional Internet: Race, Sex, Class and Culture Online. Peter Lang, 12.Google Scholar
- Sarah T. Roberts. 2018. Digital detritus: 'Error' and the logic of opacity in social media content moderation. First Monday, Vol. 23, 3 (March 2018). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v23i3.8283Google ScholarCross Ref
- Kevin Roose. 2020. The President Versus the Mods. The New York Times (May 2020). https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/29/technology/trump-twitter.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Mey Rude. 2019. Trace Lysette Is Latest Trans Woman Banned By Tinder. https://www.out.com/transgender/2019/9/19/trace-lysette-latest-trans-woman-be-banned-tinder Library Catalog: www.out.com.Google Scholar
- Salty. 2019. Exclusive: An Investigation into Algorithmic Bias in Content Policing on Instagram. https://www.saltyworld.net/algorithmicbiasreport-2/Google Scholar
- Salty. 2020. Shadowbanning is a Thing - and It's Hurting Trans and Disabled Advocates. https://saltyworld.net/shadowbanning-is-a-thing-and-its-hurting-trans-and-disabled-advocates/ Library Catalog: saltyworld.net Section: Algorithmic Bias.Google Scholar
- Morgan Klaus Scheuerman, Stacy M. Branham, and Foad Hamidi. 2018. Safe Spaces and Safe Places: Unpacking Technology-Mediated Experiences of Safety and Harm with Transgender People. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact., Vol. 2, CSCW (Nov. 2018), 155:1--155:27. https://doi.org/10.1145/3274424Google ScholarDigital Library
- Sarita Schoenebeck, Oliver L Haimson, and Lisa Nakamura. 2020. Drawing from justice theories to support targets of online harassment. New Media & Society (March 2020), 1461444820913122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820913122 Publisher: SAGE Publications.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Joseph Seering, Tony Wang, Jina Yoon, and Geoff Kaufman. 2019. Moderator engagement and community development in the age of algorithms. New Media & Society (Jan. 2019), 1461444818821316. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818821316Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jack Sidnell. 2002. Outline of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) Grammar. Technical Report. https://cdt.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Outline_of_AAVE_grammar___Jack_Sidnell_2002_1_Afr.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Olivia Solon. 2020. Facebook ignored racial bias research, employees say. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-management-ignored-internal-research-showing-racial-bias-current-former-n1234746Google Scholar
- Daniel Solórzano and Dolores Delgado Bernal. 2001. Critical race theory, transformational resistance and social justice: Chicana and Chicano students in an urban context. Urban Education (2001).Google Scholar
- Clare Southerton, Daniel Marshall, Peter Aggleton, Mary Lou Rasmussen, and Rob Cover. 2020. Restricted modes: Social media, content classification and LGBTQ sexual citizenship. New Media & Society (Feb. 2020), 1461444820904362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820904362 Publisher: SAGE Publications.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Katta Spiel, Oliver L Haimson, and Danielle Lottridge. 2019. How to Do Better with Gender on Surveys: A Guide for HCI Researchers. Interactions (Aug. 2019), 4.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Sanna Spi?ák, Elina Pirjatanniemi, Tommi Paalanen, Susanna Paasonen, and Maria Vihlman. 2021. Social Networking Sites' Gag Order: Commercial Content Moderation's Adverse Implications for Fundamental Sexual Rights and Wellbeing. Social Media+Society, Vol. 7, 2 (April 2021), 20563051211024962. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211024962 Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Liam Stack. 2019. Trump Wants Your Tales of Social Media Censorship. And Your Contact Info. The New York Times (May 2019). https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/15/us/donald-trump-twitter-facebook-youtube.htmlGoogle Scholar
- Anselm Strauss and Juliet M. Corbin. 1998. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. SAGE Publications. Google-Books-ID: tBcEjwEACAAJ.Google Scholar
- Nicolas P. Suzor. 2019 a. Lawless: The Secret Rules That Govern Our Digital Lives. Cambridge University Press. Google-Books-ID: EjGdDwAAQBAJ.Google Scholar
- Nicolas P Suzor. 2019 b. What Do We Mean When We Talk About Transparency? Toward Meaningful Transparency in Commercial Content Moderation. International Journal of Communication, Vol. 13 (2019), 1526--1543.Google Scholar
- Jeanna Sybert. 2021. The demise of #NSFW: Contested platform governance and Tumblr's 2018 adult content ban. New Media & Society (Feb. 2021), 1461444821996715. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444821996715 Publisher: SAGE Publications.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Twitter. 2021 a. COVID-19 misleading information policy. https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/medical-misinformation-policyGoogle Scholar
- Twitter. 2021 b. The Twitter rules: safety, privacy, authenticity, and more. https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/twitter-rulesGoogle Scholar
- Twitter. 2021 c. Twitter's policy on hateful conduct textbar Twitter Help. https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/hateful-conduct-policyGoogle Scholar
- Twitter. 2021 d. Twitter's sensitive media policy textbar Twitter Help. https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/media-policyGoogle Scholar
- Kristen Vaccaro, Christian Sandvig, and Karrie Karahalios. 2020. “At the End of the Day Facebook Does What It Wants”: How Users Experience Contesting Algorithmic Content Moderation. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact, Vol. 4, CSCW2 (2020), 22.Google Scholar
- Emily A. Vogels, Andrew Perrin, and Monica Anderson. 2020. Most Americans Think Social Media Sites Censor Political Viewpoints. Technical Report. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2020/08/19/most-americans-think-social-media-sites-censor-political-viewpoints/Google Scholar
- Cristan Williams. 2016. Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism. TSQ: Transgender Studies Quarterly, Vol. 3, 1--2 (May 2016), 254--258. https://doi.org/10.1215/23289252--3334463Google ScholarCross Ref
- Jillian C. York. 2021. Silicon Values: The Future of Free Speech Under Surveillance Capitalism. Verso Books. Google-Books-ID: SNwfEAAAQBAJ.Google Scholar
- Tara J. Yosso. 2005. Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth., Vol. 8 (March 2005), 24. https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006Google ScholarCross Ref
- Savvas Zannettou. 2021. "I Won the Election!": An Empirical Analysis of Soft Moderation Interventions on Twitter. arXiv:2101.07183 [cs] (Jan. 2021). http://arxiv.org/abs/2101.07183 arXiv: 2101.07183.Google Scholar
- Amy X Zhang, Grant Hugh, and Michael S Bernstein. 2020. PolicyKit: Building Governance in Online Communities. In Proceedings of UIST. 14.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Mark Zuckerberg. 2021. Mark Zuckerberg announces Trump banned from Facebook indefinitely. https://www.facebook.com/zuck/posts/10112681480907401Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Disproportionate Removals and Differing Content Moderation Experiences for Conservative, Transgender, and Black Social Media Users: Marginalization and Moderation Gray Areas
Recommendations
Beyond Initial Removal: Lasting Impacts of Discriminatory Content Moderation to Marginalized Creators on Instagram
CSCWRecent work has demonstrated how content moderation practices on social media may unfairly affect marginalized individuals, for example by censoring women's bodies and misidentifying reclaimed terms as hate speech. This study documents and explores the ...
Social Perceptions in Computer Science and Implications for Diverse Students
ICER '17: Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on International Computing Education ResearchThe barriers to diversity in computer science (CS) are complex, consisting of both structural and social barriers. In this paper, we focus on social perceptions for students in grades 7-12 in the U.S. using surveys of nationally representative samples ...
Content Moderation Folk Theories and Perceptions of Platform Spirit among Marginalized Social Media Users
Social media users create folk theories to help explain how elements of social media operate. Marginalized social media users face disproportionate content moderation and removal on social media platforms. We conducted a qualitative interview study (n = ...
Comments