skip to main content
research-article
Public Access

On the Misinformation Beat: Understanding the Work of Investigative Journalists Reporting on Problematic Information Online

Authors Info & Claims
Published:15 October 2020Publication History
Skip Abstract Section

Abstract

Journalists are increasingly investigating and reporting on problematic online content such as misinformation, disinformation, and conspiracy theories, leading to the creation of a new misinformation beat. The process of collecting, analyzing, and reporting on this kind of data is complex and nuanced. It is especially challenging as online actors attempt to undermine their work. Through in-depth interviews with twelve journalists, we explore how they investigate and report on online misinformation and disinformation. Our findings reveal some of the unique challenges of reporting on this beat, as well as the ways in which reporters overcome those challenges. We highlight and discuss how journalistic values could be better embedded into the design of tools to support their work, the power dynamics between social media companies and journalists, and the promise of collaborations as a way to support and educate journalists on this beat. This work provides contextual knowledge to researchers looking to better support investigative journalists - on the misinformation beat and beyond - as their work becomes more entangled in sociotechnical systems.

References

  1. [n.d.]. Bellingcat. https://www.bellingcat.com/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  2. [n.d.]. CrowdTangle. https://www.crowdtangle.com/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  3. [n.d.]. Data Journalism Bootcamp. https://www.ire.org/events-and-training/boot-campsGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  4. [n.d.]. Digital Forensic Research Lab. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/programs/digital-forensic-research-lab/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  5. [n.d.]. First Draft. https://firstdraftnews.org/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  6. [n.d.]. The International Fact-Checking Network. https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  7. [n.d.]. MediaWell: teaching and learning. https://mediawell.ssrc.org/teaching-and-learning/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  8. [n.d.]. Rapid release at massive scale. https://engineering.fb.com/web/rapid-release-at-massive-scale/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  9. [n.d.]. Training: Data Journalism. https://newsinitiative.withgoogle.com/training/course/data-journalismGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  10. [n.d.]. Training: Verification Course. https://newsinitiative.withgoogle.com/training/course/verificationGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  11. [n.d.]. Verification Training. https://firstdraftnews.org/training/verification/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  12. 2019. Newspapers Fact Sheet. https://www.journalism.org/fact-sheet/newspapers/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  13. 2020. Coronavirus: Responsible reporting and ethics. https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/coronavirusresources- for-reporters/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  14. 2020. Novel Coronavirus(2019-nCoV): Situation Report - 13. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/ situation-reports/20200202-sitrep-13-ncov-v3.pdf'sfvrsn=195f4010_6Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  15. 2020. Reporter Resource Hub. https://firstdraftnews.org/training/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  16. 2020. Social Science One: Our Facebook Partnership. https://socialscience.one/our-facebook-partnershipGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  17. Penelope Muse Abernathy. 2018. The expanding news desert. Center for Innovation and Sustainability in Local Media, School of MediaGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  18. Elena Agapie, Jaime Teevan, and Andrés Monroy-Hernández. 2015. Crowdsourcing in the field: A case study using local crowds for event reporting. In Third AAAI Conference on Human Computation and Crowdsourcing. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact., Vol. 4, No. CSCW2, Article 133. Publication date: October 2020. 133:20 Melinda McClure Haughey et al.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  19. Davey Alba. 2020. Virus Conspiracists Elevate a New Champion. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/09/technology/ plandemic-judy-mikovitz-coronavirus-disinformation.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  20. Mike Ananny and Leila Bighash. 2016. Why drop a paywall? Mapping industry accounts of online news decommodification. International Journal of Communication 10 (2016), 22.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  21. Ester Appelgren and Gunnar Nygren. 2014. Data Journalism in Sweden: Introducing new methods and genres of journalism into "old" organizations. Digital Journalism 2, 3 (2014), 394--405.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  22. Ahmer Arif, Leo Graiden Stewart, and Kate Starbird. 2018. Acting the part: Examining information operations within# BlackLivesMatter discourse. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 2, CSCW (2018), 1--27.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  23. Aleszu Bajak, John Wihbey, Gibson Free, and Paxten Merten. 2019. Newsroom Textual Analysis and Visualization Tools Built With R Shiny. In Proceedings of the Computation + Journalism Conference, University of Miami, FL.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  24. Nancy K Baym. 2013. Data not seen: The uses and shortcomings of social media metrics. First Monday 18, 10 (2013).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  25. Susan Benkelman. 2019. Getting it Right: Strategies for truth-telling in a time of misinformation and polarization. https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/publications/reports/white-papers/truth-telling-in-a-time-ofmisinformation- and-polarization/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  26. Ladislav Bittman. 1985. The KGB and Soviet disinformation: an insider's view. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey?s.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  27. danah boyd. 2018. The Messy Fourth Estate. https://gen.medium.com/the-messy-fourth-estate-a42c1586b657Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  28. Danah Boyd and Kate Crawford. 2011. Six provocations for big data. In A decade in internet time: Symposium on the dynamics of the internet and society.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  29. Bert Jan Brands, Todd Graham, and Marcel Broersma. 2018. Social media sourcing practices: How Dutch newspapers use tweets in political news coverage. In Managing democracy in the digital age. Springer, 159--178.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  30. Kathy Charmaz, Liska Belgrave, et al. 2012. Qualitative interviewing and grounded theory analysis. The SAGE handbook of interview research: The complexity of the craft 2 (2012), 347--365.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  31. Euirim Choi, Gillian Brassil, Katie Keller, Jessica Ouyang, and Kate Wang. 2020. Bankruptcy Map: A System for Searching and Analyzing US Bankruptcy Cases at Scale. (2020).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  32. Mark Coddington. 2020. Gathering evidence of evidence: News aggregation as an epistemological practice. Journalism 21, 3 (2020), 365--380.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  33. Sarah Cohen, James T Hamilton, and Fred Turner. 2011. Computational journalism. Commun. ACM 54, 10 (2011), 66--71.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  34. Nick Corasaniti. 2020. How a Misleading Biden Video Spread. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/07/us/politics/bidenvideo- disinformation-spread.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  35. Dharma Dailey and Kate Starbird. 2014. Journalists as crowdsourcerers: Responding to crisis by reporting with a crowd. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) 23, 4--6 (2014), 445--481.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  36. Walter Dean. [n.d.]. Journalism as a discipline of verification. https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/journalismessentials/ verification-accuracy/journalism-discipline-verification/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  37. Mark Deuze and Jo Bardoel. 2001. Network journalism: Converging competences of media professionals and professionalism. (2001).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  38. Caitlin Dewey. 2015. 48 hours inside the Internet?s 'most toxic' community. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ the-intersect/wp/2015/03/26/48-hours-inside-the-internets-most-toxic-community/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  39. Nicholas Diakopoulos. 2016. Computational journalism and the emergence of news platforms. The Routledge Companion to Digital Journalism Studies. London: Routledge (2016).Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  40. Nicholas Diakopoulos, Munmun De Choudhury, and Mor Naaman. 2012. Finding and assessing social media information sources in the context of journalism. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems. 2451--2460.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  41. Nicholas Diakopoulos, Mor Naaman, and Funda Kivran-Swaine. 2010. Diamonds in the rough: Social media visual analytics for journalistic inquiry. In 2010 IEEE Symposium on Visual Analytics Science and Technology. IEEE, 115--122.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  42. Joan Donovan and Brian Friedberg. 2019. Source hacking: Media manipulation in practice. Retrieved from Data&Society website: https://datasociety. net/output/source-hacking-media-manipulation-in-practice (2019).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  43. J. Doubek. 2017. Conspiracy Theorist Alex Jones Apologizes For Promoting "Pizzagate.". https://www.npr.org/sections/ thetwo-way/2017/03/26/521545788/conspiracy-theorist-alex-jones-apologizes-for-promoting-pizzagateGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  44. Henrik Fagrell, Kerstin Forsberg, Erik Johannesson, and Fredrik Ljungberg. 2000. NewsMate: Providing mobile and distributed news journalists with timely information. In CHI'00 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 121--122.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  45. Henry Farrell and Bruce Schneier. 2018. Common-knowledge attacks on democracy. Berkman Klein Center Research Publication 2018--7 (2018).Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  46. Sheera Frenkel. 2018. Facebook Tackles Rising Threat: Americans Aping Russian Schemes to Deceive. https: //www.nytimes.com/2018/10/11/technology/fake-news-online-disinformation.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  47. Batya Friedman. 1996. Value-sensitive design. interactions 3, 6 (1996), 16--23. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact., Vol. 4, No. CSCW2, Article 133. Publication date: October 2020. On the Misinformation Beat: Understanding the Work of Investigative Journalists Reporting on Problematic Information Online 133:21Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  48. Tarleton Gillespie. 2010. The politics of 'platforms'. New Media & Society 12, 3 (2010), 347--364. https://doi.org/10. 1177/1461444809342738Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  49. Tarleton Gillespie. 2018. Platforms are not intermediaries. Georgetown Law Technology Review 2, 2 (2018), 198--216.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  50. Dan Gillmor. 2004. We the media: The rise of citizen journalists. National Civic Review 93, 3 (2004), 58--63.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  51. Barney Glaser. 1967. 8: Strauss, A.(1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Alsine de Gruyter, New york (1967).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  52. Lucas Graves. 2016. Deciding what's true: The rise of political fact-checking in American journalism. Columbia University Press.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  53. Elizabeth Grieco. 2020. U.S. newspapers have shed half of their newsroom employees since 2008. https://www. pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/20/u-s-newsroom-employment-has-dropped-by-a-quarter-since-2008/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  54. Joshua Guberman, Carol Schmitz, and Libby Hemphill. 2016. Quantifying Toxicity and Verbal Violence on Twitter. (2016), 277 -- 280. https://doi.org/10.1145/2818052.2869107Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  55. Greg Guest, Arwen Bunce, and Laura Johnson. 2006. How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field methods 18, 1 (2006), 59--82.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  56. Tony Harcup and Deirdre O'neill. 2001. What is news? Galtung and Ruge revisited. Journalism studies 2, 2 (2001), 261--280.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  57. Ariel Hasell and Brian E Weeks. 2016. Partisan provocation: The role of partisan news use and emotional responses in political information sharing in social media. Human Communication Research 42, 4 (2016), 641--661.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  58. Alfred Hermida. 2010. Twittering the news: The emergence of ambient journalism. Journalism practice 4, 3 (2010), 297--308.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  59. Caroline Jack. 2017. Lexicon of lies: Terms for problematic information. Data & Society 3 (2017).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  60. Shan Jiang and Christo Wilson. 2018. Linguistic Signals under Misinformation and Fact-Checking: Evidence from User Comments on Social Media. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact. 2, CSCW, Article 82 (Nov. 2018), 23 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3274351Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  61. Anna Kata. 2010. A postmodern Pandora?s box: anti-vaccination misinformation on the Internet. Vaccine 28, 7 (2010), 1709--1716.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  62. Yubo Kou, Xinning Gui, Yunan Chen, and Kathleen Pine. 2017. Conspiracy talk on social media: collective sensemaking during a public health crisis. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 1, CSCW (2017), 1--21.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  63. Rachael Krishna. 2018. TikTok Creators Say They Are Being Bullied And The Company Isn't Helping. https: //www.buzzfeednews.com/article/krishrach/tik-tok-users-bullying-abuse-complaintsGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  64. Kenza Lamot and Steve Paulussen. 2020. Six Uses of Analytics: Digital Editors? Perceptions of Audience Analytics in the Newsroom. Journalism Practice 14, 3 (2020), 358--373.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  65. Jane Lytvynenko, Ryan Broderick, and Craig Silverman. 2020. These Are The Fake Experts Pushing Pseudoscience And Conspiracy Theories About The Coronavirus Pandemic. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/ coronavirus-spin-doctorsGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  66. Jane Lytvynenko and Craig Silverman. 2020. We're Keeping A Running List Of Hoaxes And Misleading Posts About The Nationwide Police Brutality Protests. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/janelytvynenko/hoax-misleadingclaims- george-floyd-protestsGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  67. Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis. 2017. Media manipulation and disinformation online. New York: Data Society Research Institute (2017).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  68. Hana Matatov, Adina Bechhofer, Lora Aroyo, Ofra Amir, and Mor Naaman. [n.d.]. DejaVu: A System for Journalists to Collaboratively Address Visual Misinformation. ([n. d.]).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  69. Min-Che Ho and Tsai-Yen Li. 2005. An experimental news production system with flexible role-based access control. (2005), 287--291.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  70. Amy Mitchell. 2016. State of news media 2016. Pew Research Center.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  71. Robert S Mueller and Man With A. Cat. 2019. Report on the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election. Vol. 1. US Department of Justice Washington, DC.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  72. Merja Myllylahti. 2018. An attention economy trap? An empirical investigation into four news companies? Facebook traffic and social media revenue. Journal of Media Business Studies 15, 4 (2018), 237--253.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  73. Alex Pasternack. 2019. Frustrated funders exit Facebook's election transparency project. https://www.fastcompany. com/90412518/facebooks-plan-for-radical-transparency-was-too-radical%22Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  74. Whitney Phillips. 2018. The oxygen of amplification. Data & Society (2018).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  75. Peter Pomerantsev and Michael Weiss. 2014. The menace of unreality: How the Kremlin weaponizes information, culture and money. Vol. 14. Institute of Modern Russia New York.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  76. Susan Reilly. 2017. The need to help journalists with data and information visualization. IEEE computer graphics and applications 37, 2 (2017), 8--10.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  77. Ronald E Robertson and Christo Wilson. 2020. WebSearcher: Tools for Auditing Web Search. (2020). Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact., Vol. 4, No. CSCW2, Article 133. Publication date: October 2020. 133:22 Melinda McClure Haughey et al.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  78. Kevin Roose. 2018. We Asked for Examples of Election Misinformation. You Delivered. https://www.nytimes.com/ 2018/11/04/us/politics/election-misinformation-facebook.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  79. Dana Rotman, Jennifer Preece, Yurong He, and Allison Druin. 2012. Extreme ethnography: challenges for research in large scale online environments. (2012), 207--214.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  80. Elise Samuels. 2020. How misinformation on WhatsApp led to a mob killing in India. https://www.washingtonpost. com/politics/2020/02/21/how-misinformation-whatsapp-led-deathly-mob-lynching-india/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  81. Elyse Samuels and Meg Kelly. 2020. How false hope spread about hydroxychloroquine to treat covid-19 ? and the consequences that followed. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/04/13/how-false-hope-spread-abouthydroxychloroquine- its-consequences/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  82. Scott Shane. 2017. The fake Americans Russia created to influence the election. The New York Times 7, 09 (2017).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  83. Elisa Shearer. 2018. Social media outpaces print newspapers in the U.S. as a news source. https://www.pewresearch. org/fact-tank/2018/12/10/social-media-outpaces-print-newspapers-in-the-u-s-as-a-news-source/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  84. Craig Silverman. 2016. Hyperpartisan Facebook Pages Are Publishing False And Misleading Information At An Alarming Rate. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/partisan-fb-pages-analysis#.iudGgWZ1ZvGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  85. Kate Starbird, Ahmer Arif, and Tom Wilson. 2019. Disinformation as collaborative work: Surfacing the participatory nature of strategic information operations. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 3, CSCW (2019), 1--26.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  86. Kate Starbird, Ahmer Arif, and Tom Wilson. 2019. Disinformation as Collaborative Work: Surfacing the Participatory Nature of Strategic Information Operations. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact. 3, CSCW, Article 127 (Nov. 2019), 26 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3359229Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  87. M. Sullivan. 2020. Journalists can't ignore hacked data meant to disrupt elections. https://www.washingtonpost. com/lifestyle/style/journalists-cant-ignore-hacked-data-meant-to-disrupt-elections-but-heres-what-they-cando/ 2019/04/26/4ff6a0fa-6785--11e9-a1b6-b29b90efa879_story.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  88. Adam Tornes. 2020. Enabling study of the public conversation in a time of crisis. https://blog.twitter.com/developer/ en_us/topics/tools/2020/covid19_public_conversation_data.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  89. Sukrit Venkatagiri, Jacob Thebault-Spieker, Rachel Kohler, John Purviance, Rifat Sabbir Mansur, and Kurt Luther. 2019. GroundTruth: Augmenting Expert Image Geolocation with Crowdsourcing and Shared Representations. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 3, CSCW (2019), 1--30.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  90. Jessica Vitak, Kalyani Chadha, Linda Steiner, and Zahra Ashktorab. 2017. Identifying Women's Experiences With and Strategies for Mitigating Negative Effects of Online Harassment. (2017), 15. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.2998337Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  91. Soroush Vosoughi, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. 2018. The spread of true and false news online. Science 359, 6380 (2018), 1146--1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559 arXiv:https://science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146.full.pdfGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  92. Claire Wardle. 2019. Misinformation Has Created a New World Disorder. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ misinformation-has-created-a-new-world-disorder/Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  93. Charlie Warzel. 2019. Epstein Suicide Conspiracies Show How Our Information System Is Poisoned. https://www. nytimes.com/2019/08/11/opinion/jeffrey-epstein-suicide-conspiracies.htmlGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  94. EA Watkins and CW Anderson. [n.d.]. Managing Journalistic Innovation and Source Security in the Age of the Weaponized Internet. I A. Bygdås, S. Clegg & AL Hagen (Red.). Media management and Digital transformation ([n. d.]).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  95. Susan C Weller, Ben Vickers, H Russell Bernard, Alyssa M Blackburn, Stephen Borgatti, Clarence C Gravlee, and Jeffrey C Johnson. 2018. Open-ended interview questions and saturation. PloS one 13, 6 (2018).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  96. Brandy Zadronzny and Ben Collins. 2018. How three conspiracy theorists took 'Q' and sparked Qanon. https: //www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/how-three-conspiracy-theorists-took-q-sparked-qanon-n900531Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  97. Brandy Zadrozny. 2019. Twitter account that amplified Covington Catholic D.C. march video appears linked to California teacher. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/twitter-account-amplified-covington-catholic-d-cmarch- video-appears-n961981Google ScholarGoogle Scholar

Index Terms

  1. On the Misinformation Beat: Understanding the Work of Investigative Journalists Reporting on Problematic Information Online

    Recommendations

    Comments

    Login options

    Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

    Sign in

    Full Access

    • Published in

      cover image Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction
      Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction  Volume 4, Issue CSCW2
      CSCW
      October 2020
      2310 pages
      EISSN:2573-0142
      DOI:10.1145/3430143
      Issue’s Table of Contents

      Copyright © 2020 ACM

      Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than the author(s) must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected].

      Publisher

      Association for Computing Machinery

      New York, NY, United States

      Publication History

      • Published: 15 October 2020
      Published in pacmhci Volume 4, Issue CSCW2

      Permissions

      Request permissions about this article.

      Request Permissions

      Check for updates

      Qualifiers

      • research-article

    PDF Format

    View or Download as a PDF file.

    PDF

    eReader

    View online with eReader.

    eReader