skip to main content
research-article

Statistical machine translation enhancements through linguistic levels: A survey

Published:01 January 2014Publication History
Skip Abstract Section

Abstract

Machine translation can be considered a highly interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary field because it is approached from the point of view of human translators, engineers, computer scientists, mathematicians, and linguists. One of the most popular approaches is the Statistical Machine Translation (smt) approach, which tries to cover translation in a holistic manner by learning from parallel corpus aligned at the sentence level. However, with this basic approach, there are some issues at each written linguistic level (i.e., orthographic, morphological, lexical, syntactic and semantic) that remain unsolved. Research in smt has continuously been focused on solving the different linguistic levels challenges. This article represents a survey of how the smt has been enhanced to perform translation correctly at all linguistic levels.

References

  1. A. Ahmed and G. Hanneman. 2005. Syntax-based Statistical Machine Translation: A Review. Technical Report. Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved from http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/project/cmt-55/lti/Courses/734/Spring-08/Amr%2BGreg-survey-SSMT.pdfGoogle ScholarGoogle Scholar
  2. Y. Al-Onaizan and K. Knight. 2002. Translating named entities using monolingual and bilingual resources. In Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'02). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 400--408. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1073083.1073150 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  3. H. Alshawi, S. Douglas, and S. Bangalore. 2000. Learning dependency translation models as collections of finite-state head transducers. Comput. Linguist. 26, 1 (March 2000), 45--60. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/089120100561629 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  4. A. Aue, A. Menezes, B. Moore, C. Quirk, and E. Ringger. 2004. Statistical Machine Translation Using Labeled Semantic Dependency Graphs. In Proceedings of TMI 2004. 125--134.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  5. E. Avramidis and P. Koehn. 2008. Enriching morphologically poor languages for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the Conference of the Association for Computational Linguistics and Human Language Technology (ACL-HLT'08). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 763--770.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  6. A. Aw, M. Zhang, J. Xiao, and J. Su. 2006. A phrase-based statistical model for SMS text normalization. In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computational Linguistics and 44th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Association for Computer Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/P/P06/P06-2005.pdf Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  7. N. Bach. 2012. Dependency Structures for Statistical Machine Translation. PhD dissertation. Carnegie Mellon University. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  8. I. Badr, R. Zbib, and J. Glass. 2009. Syntactic phrase reordering for English-to-Arabic statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 12th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 86--93. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  9. L. Banarescu, C. Bonial, S. Cai, M. Georgescu, K. Griffitt, U. Hermjakob, K. Knight, P. Koehn, M. Palmer, and N. Schneider. 2013. Abstract meaning representation for sembanking. In Proceedings of the Linguistic Annotation Workshop. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  10. R. E. Banchs and M. R. Costa-jussà. 2011. A semantic feature for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Syntax, Semantics and Structure in Statistical Translation (SSST-5). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 126--134. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  11. S. Bangalore, P. Haffner, and S. Kanthak. 2007. Statistical Machine Translation through Global Lexical Selection and Sentence Reconstruction. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 152--159.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  12. A. L. Berger, S. A. D. Pietra, and V. J. D. Pietra. 1996. A maximum entropy approach to natural language processing. Computational Linguistics 22, 1 (March 1996), 39--72. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  13. N. Bertoldi, M. Cettolo, and M. Federico. 2010. Statistical machine translation of texts with misspelled words. In Proceedings of the NAACL. 412--419. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  14. J. A. Bilmes and K. Kirchhoff. 2003. Factored language models and generalized parallel backoff. In Proceedings of the Conference of the Association for Computational Linguistics and Human Language Technology (NAACL-HLT'03). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 4--6. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  15. A. Birch and M. Osborne. 2010. LRscore for evaluating lexical and reordering quality in MT. In Proceedings of the Joint 5th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation and MetricsMATR (WMT'10). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 327--332. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  16. A. Birch, M. Osborne, and P. Koehn. 2007. CCG Supertags in Factored Translation Models. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  17. H. C. Boas. 2002. Bilingual FrameNet dictionaries for machine translation. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation. 1364--1371.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  18. O. Bojar, M. Ercegovčević, M. Popel, and O. Zaidan. 2011. A grain of salt for the WMT manual evaluation output. In Proceedings of the EMNLP 6th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (WMT'11). 1--11. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  19. O. Bojar and A. Tamchyna. 2011. Forms wanted: Training SMT on monolingual Data. In Proceedings of the Workshop of Machine Translation and Morphologically-Rich Languages.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  20. T. Brants. 2000. A statistical part-of-speech tagger. In Proceedings of the 6th Applied Natural Language Processing Conference. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  21. P. F. Brown, S. A. D. Pietra, V. J. D. Pietra, and R. L. Mercer. 1993. The mathematics of statistical machine translation: Parameter estimation. Computational Linguistics 19, 2 (1993), 263--311. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  22. M. Carpuat and D. Wu. 2007. Context-dependent phrasal translation lexicons for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the Machine Translation Summit XI.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  23. M. Carpuat and D. Wu. 2008. Evaluation of Context-Dependent Phrasal Translation Lexicons for Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'08).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  24. Y. S. Chan, H. T. Ng, and D. Chiang. 2007. Word Sense disambiguation improves statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 33--40.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  25. P. Charoenpornsawat, V. Sornlertlamvanich, and T. Charoenporn. 2002. Improving translation quality of rule-based machine translation. In Proceedings of the 2002 COLING Workshop on Machine translation in Asia, Volume 16 (COLING-MTIA'02). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 1--6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1118794.1118799 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  26. S. F. Chen and J. Goodman. 1996. An empirical study of smoothing techniques for language modeling. In Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'96). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 310--318. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/981863.981904 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  27. D. Chiang. 2005. A hierarchical phrase-based model for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 263--270. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  28. D. Chiang. 2007. Hierarchical phrase-based translation. Comput. Linguist. 33, 2 (June 2007), 201--228. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/coli.2007.33.2.201 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  29. D. Chiang, K. Knight, and W. Wang. 2009. 11,001 new features for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of Human Language Technologies: The 2009 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (NAACL'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 218--226. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  30. M. Collins, P. Koehn, and I. Kucerova. 2005. Clause restructuring for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association for Computational Lingusitics (ACL'05). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  31. M. R. Costa-Jussà. 2012. An overview of the phrase-based statistical machine translation techniques. Knowledge Eng. Review 27, 4 (2012), 413--431. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  32. M. R. Costa-jussà, R. E. Banchs, E. Rapp, P. Lambert, K. Eberle, and B. Babych. 2013. Workshop on hybrid approaches to translation: Overview and developments. In Proceedings of the ACL 2nd Workshop on Hybrid Approaches to Translation (HyTra'13). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  33. M. R. Costa-Jussà and J. A. R. Fonollosa. 2009. State-of-the-art word reordering approaches in statistical machine translation: A survey. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems 92, 11 (2009), 2179--2185.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  34. B. A. Cowan. 2008. A Tree-to-Tree Model for Statistical Machine Translation. Ph.D. Dissertation. Standford University. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  35. M. Creutz and K. Lagus. 2005. Inducing the morphological lexicon of a natural language from unannotated text. In Proceedings of the International and Interdisciplinary Conference on Adaptive Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (AKRR'05).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  36. A. de Gispert, S. Virpioja, M. Kurimo, and W. Byrne. 2009. Minimum Bayes risk combination of translation hypotheses from alternative morphological decompositions. In Proceedings of the 2009 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Companion Volume: Short Papers. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 73--76. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  37. M. Diab, M. Ghoneim, and N. Habash. 2007. Arabic diacritization in the context of statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the Machine Translation Summit XI. 143--149.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  38. Y. Ding and M. Palmer. 2005. Machine translation using probabilistic synchronous dependency insertion grammars. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 541--548. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1219840.1219907 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  39. A. Eisele, C. Federmann, H. Saint-Amand, M. Jellinghaus, T. Herrmann, and Y. Chen. 2008. Using Moses to integrate multiple rule-based machine translation engines into a hybrid system. In Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 179--182. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  40. I. D. El-Kahlout and K. Oflazer. 2010. Exploiting morphology and local wword reordering in English-to-Turkish phrase-based statistical machine translation. IEEE Transactions on Audio, Speech & Language Processing 18, 6 (2010), 1313--1322. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  41. A. El Kholy and N. Habash. 2012. Orthographic and morphological processing for English-Arabic statistical machine translation. Machine Translation 26, 1--2 (2012), 25--45. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10590-011-9110-0 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  42. J. Elming. 2008. Syntactic Reordering in Statistical Machine Translation. PhD dissertation. Copenhaguen Business School.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  43. C. España-Bonet, J. Giménez, and L. Màrquez. 2009. Discriminative phrase-based models for Arabic machine yranslation. ACM Transactions on Asian Language Information Processing Journal 8, 4 (March 2009), Article 15. 20 pages. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1644879.1644882 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  44. C. España-Bonet, G. Labaka, A. D. de Ilarraza, L. Màrquez, and K. Sarasola. 2011. Hybrid Machine Translation Guided by a Rule-Based System. In Proceedings of the 13th Machine Translation Summit. 554--561.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  45. M. Farrús, M. R. Costa-Jussà, J. B. Marino, M. Poch, A. Hernandez, C. Henríquez, and J. A. R. Fonollosa. 2011. Overcoming statistical machine translation limitations: Error analysis and proposed solutions for the Catalan-Spanish language pair. Language Resources and Evaluation (2011), 181--208. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  46. M. Farrús, M. R. Costa-jussà, J. B. Marino, and J. A. R. Fonollosa. 2010. Linguistic-based evaluation criteria to identify statistical machine translation errors. In Proceedings of the 14th Annual Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT'10). 167--173.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  47. M. Farrús, M. R. Costa-jussà, and M. Popović. 2012. Study and correlation analysis of linguistic, perceptual, and automatic machine translation evaluations. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 63, 1 (Jan. 2012), 174--184. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/asi.21674 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  48. M. Felice and L. Specia. 2012. Linguistic features for quality estimation. In Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 96--103. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  49. M. Flanagan. 1994. Error classification for MT evaluation. In Proceedings of the 1st Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas (1994), 65--72.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  50. M. L. Forcada, F. M. Tyers, and G. Ramírez-Sánchez. 2009. The Apertium machine translation platform: Five years on. In Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Free/Open-Source Rule-Based Machine Translation, Juan Antonio Prez-Ortiz, Felipe Snchez-Martnez, and Francis M. Tyers (Eds.). Departamento de Lenguajes y Sistemas Informáticos, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, 3--10.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  51. Ll. Formiga, A. Hernández, J. B. Mariño, and E. Monte. 2012. Improving English to Spanish out-of-domain translations by morphology generalization and generation. In Proceedings of the AMTA Workshop on Monolingual Machine Translation.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  52. G. Foster, P. Isabelle, and R. Kuhn. 2010. Translating structured documents. In Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  53. A. Fraser and D. Marcu. 2007. Measuring word alignment quality for statistical machine translation. Computational Linguistics (2007), 293--303. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  54. P. Fung and P. Cheung. 2004. Mining very-non-parallel corpora: Parallel sentence and lexicon extraction via bootstrapping and E. In Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'04). 57--63.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  55. M. Galley, J. Graehl, K. Knight, D. Marcu, S. DeNeefe, W. Wang, and I. Thayer. 2006. Scalable inference and training of context-rich syntactic translation models. In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computational Linguistics and the 44th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL-44). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 961--968. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1220175.1220296 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  56. M. Galley, M. Hopkins, K. Knight, and D. Marcu. 2004. What's in a translation rule? In Proceedings of the 2004 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linsuitics (NAACL HLT 2004), Daniel Marcu Susan Dumais and Salim Roukos (Eds.). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 273--280.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  57. I. García-Varea, F. J. Och, H. Ney, and F. Casacuberta. 2001. Refined lexicon models for statistical machine translation using a maximum entropy approach. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and 10th Conference of the European Chapter of the ASsociation for Computational Linguistics (ACL/EACL'01). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  58. D. Genzel. 2010. Automatically learning source-side reordering rules for large scale machine translation. In Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING'10). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 376--384. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  59. U. Germann. 2012. Syntax-aware phrase-based statistical machine translation: System description. In Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 292--297. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  60. J. Giménez and L. Màrquez. 2007. Linguistic features for automatic evaluation of heterogenous MT systems. In Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (StatMT'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 256--264. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  61. J. Graehl, K. Knight, and J. May. 2008. Training tree transducers. Comput. Linguist. 34, 3 (Sept. 2008), 391--427. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/coli.2008.07-051-R2-03-57 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  62. S. Green and J. DeNero. 2012. A Class-based agreement model for generating accurately inflected translations. In Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  63. R. Haque. 2011. Integrating Source-Language Context into Log-linear Models of Statistical Machine Translation. Ph.D. Dissertation. Dublin City University.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  64. C. Hardmeier. 2012. Discourse in Statistical Machine Translation: A Survey and a Case Study. Discours 11 (2012). http://discours.revues.org/8726.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  65. C. Hardmeier and M. Federico. 2010. Modelling pronominal anaphora in statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT'10), Marcello Federico, Ian Lane, Michael Paul, and François Yvon (Eds.). 283--289.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  66. R. R. Hausser. 2001. Foundations of Computational Linguistics: Human-Computer Communication in Natural Language. Springer. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  67. S. Helmreich and D. Farwell. 1998. Translation differences and pragmatics-based MT. Machine Translation 13, 1 (1998), 17--39. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1008062303478 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  68. H. Hoang and A. Lopez. 2009. A unified framework for phrase-based, hierarchical, and syntax-based statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT'09). 152--159.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  69. C. Huang, H. Yen, P. Yang, S. Huang, and J. S. Chang. 2011. Using sublexical translations to handle the OOV problem in machine translation. 10, 3, Article 16 (Sept. 2011), 20 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2002980.2002986 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  70. L. Huang, K. Knight, and A. Joshi. 2006. A syntax-directed translator with extended domain of locality. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Computationally Hard Problems and Joint Inference in Speech and Language Processing (CHSLP'06). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 1--8. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  71. W. J. Hutchins. 1995. Machine translation: A brief history. In Concise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists. Pergamon Press, 431--445.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  72. W. J. Hutchins. 2005. The History of Machine Translation in a Nutshell. Retrieved from http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/WJHutchins/Nutshell.htm.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  73. V. Istvan and Y. Shoichi. 2009. Bilingual dictionary generation for low-resourced language pairs. In Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Vol. 2. 862--870. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  74. P. Karageorgakis, A. Potamianos, and K. Ioannis. 2005. Towards incorporating language morphology into statistical machine translation systems. In Proceedings of the Automatic Speech Recognition and Understanding Workshop.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  75. M. Khalilov and J. A. R. Fonollosa. 2011. Syntax-based reordering for statistical machine translation. Computer Speech and Language Journal 25, 4 (October 2011). Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  76. R. Kneser and H. Ney. 1995. Improved backing-off for n-gram language modeling. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing. 49--52.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  77. K. Knight and J. Graehl. 1998. Machine transliteration. Comput. Linguist. 24, 4 (Dec. 1998), 599--612. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  78. Catherine Kobus, François Yvon, and Géraldine Damnati. 2008. Normalizing SMS: Are two metaphors better than one? In Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Proceedings of the Conference (COLING'08). 441--448. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/anthology/C08-1056 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  79. P. Koehn and H. Hoang. 2007. Factored translation models. In Proceedings of the 2007 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning (EMNLP-CoNLL'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 868--876.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  80. P. Koehn, H. Hoang, A. Birch, C. Callison-Burch, M. Federico, N. Bertoldi, B. Cowan, W. Shen, C. Moran, R. Zens, C. Dyer, O. Bojar, A. Constantin, and E. Herbst. 2007. Moses: Open source toolkit for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the ACL on Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions (ACL'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 177--180. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  81. P. Koehn and K. Knight. 2003. Empirical methods for compound splitting. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference on European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Volume 1 (EACL'03). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 187--193. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1067807.1067833 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  82. P. Koehn, F. J. Och, and D. Marcu. 2003. Statistical phrase-based translation. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association for Computational Lingusitics (ACL03). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  83. G. Kondrak. 2005. Cognates and word alignment in bitexts. In Proceedings of the 10th Machine Translation Summit. 305--312.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  84. G. Kondrak, D. Marcu, and K. Knight. 2003. Cognates can improve statistical translation models. In Proceedings of the 2003 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language Technology: Companion Volume of the Proceedings of HLT-NAACL 2003--Short Papers, Volume 2 (NAACL-Short'03). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 46--48. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1073483.1073499 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  85. A. Kumaran and T. Kellner. 2007. A generic framework for machine transliteration. In Proceedings of the 30th Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR'07). ACM, New York, NY, 721--722. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1277741.1277876 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  86. J. D. Lafferty, A. McCallum, and F. C. N. Pereira. 2001. Conditional random fields: Probabilistic models for segmenting and labeling sequence data. In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML'01). Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco, CA, 282--289. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  87. T. K. Landauer, D. Laham, and P. Foltz. 1998. Learning human-like knowledge by singular value decomposition: A progress report. In Proceedings of the Conference on Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 45--51. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  88. P. Langlais and F. Gotti. 2006. Phrase-based SMT with shallow tree-phrases. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (StatMT'06). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 39--46. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  89. P. Langlais and A. Patry. 2007. Translating unknown words by analogical learning. In EMNLP-CoNLL (2010-06-04). ACL, 877--886.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  90. A. Lavie and A. Agarwal. 2007. METEOR: an automatic metric for MT evaluation with high levels of correlation with human judgments. In Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (StatMT'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 228--231. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  91. R. L. Nagard and P. Koehn. 2010. Aiding pronoun translation with co-reference resolution. In Proceedings of the Joint 5th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation and Metrics (MATR'10). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 258--267. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  92. C. Li, N. Duan, Y. Zhao, S. Liu, L. Cui, M. Hwang, A. Axelrod, J. Gao, Y. Zhang, and L. Deng. 2010. The MSRA machine translation system for IWSLT 2010. In Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation (IWSLT'10), 135--138.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  93. C. Li, D. Zhang, M. Li, M. Zhou, M. Li, and Y. Guan. 2007. A probabilistic approach to syntax-based reordering for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association for Computational Lingusitics (ACL'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 720--727.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  94. Z. Li and D. Yarowsky. 2008. Unsupervised translation induction for Chinese abbreviations using monolingual corpora. In ACL, Kathleen McKeown, Johanna D. Moore, Simone Teufel, James Allan, and Sadaoki Furui (Eds.). Association for Computer Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 425--433.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  95. L. V. Lita, A. Ittycheriah, S. Roukos, and N. Kambhatla. 2003. tRuEcasIng. In Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. 152--159. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  96. Y. Liu, Q. Liu, and S. Lin. 2006. Tree-to-string alignment template for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computational Linguistics and the 44th annual meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL-44). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 609--616. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1220175.1220252 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  97. C. Lo and D. Wu. 2011. MEANT: An inexpensive, high-accuracy, semi-automatic metric for evaluating translation utility via semantic frames. In Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (HLT'11). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 220--229. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  98. LSA. 2013. Linguistic Society of America Homepage. Retrieved from http://www.linguisticsociety.org.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  99. J. B. Mariño, R. E. Banchs, J. M. Crego, A. de Gispert, P. Lambert, J. A. R. Fonollosa, and M. R. Costa-jussà. 2006. N-gram-based Machine Translation. Comput. Linguist. 32, 4 (Dec. 2006), 527--549. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/coli.2006.32.4.527 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  100. Y. Marton, C. Callison-Burch, and P. Resnik. 2009. Improved statistical machine translation using monolingually-derived paraphrases. In Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: Volume 1 - Volume 1 (EMNLP'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 381--390. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  101. I. A. McCowan, D. Moore, J. Dines, D. Gatica-Perez, M. Flynn, P. Wellner, and H. Bourlard. 2004. On the Use of Information Retrieval Measures for Speech Recognition Evaluation. Idiap-RR Idiap-RR-73-2004. IDIAP, Martigny, Switzerland.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  102. A. Menezes and C. Quirk. 2008. Syntactic models for structural word insertion and deletion. In Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'08). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 735--744. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  103. A. Menezes and S. D. Richardson. 2001. A best-first alignment algorithm for automatic extraction of transfer mappings from bilingual corpora. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Data-driven Methods in Machine Translation, Volume 14 (DMMT'01). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 1--8. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1118037.1118043 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  104. T. Meyer, A. Popescu-Belis, N. Hajlaoui, and A. Gesmundo. 2012. Machine translation of labeled discourse connectives. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas (AMTA'12). Retrieved from http://www.mt-archive.info/AMTA-2012-Meyer.pdf.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  105. E. Minkov, K. Toutanova, and H. Suzuki. 2007. Generating complex morphology for machine translation. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  106. S. Mirkin, L. Specia, N. Cancedda, I. Dagan, M. Dymetman, and I. Szpektor. 2009. Source-language entailment modeling for translating unknown terms. In Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the 47th Annual Meeting of the ACL and the 4th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing of the AFNLP: Volume 2 (ACL'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 791--799. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1690219.1690257 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  107. R. Mitkov, V. Pekar, D. Blagoev, and A. Mulloni. 2007. Methods for extracting and classifying pairs of cognates and false friends. Machine Translation 21, 1 (March 2007), 29--53. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10590-008-9034-5 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  108. A. Mulloni and A. Pekar. 2006. Automatic detection of orthographic cues for cognate recognition. In Proceedings of the Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  109. P. Nakov and H. T. Ng. 2009. Improved statistical machine translation for resource-poor languages using related resource-rich languages. In Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'09). ACL, 1358--1367. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/anthology/D09-1141 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  110. F. J. Och. 2003. Minimum Error Rate Training In Statistical Machine Translation. In 41th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 160--167. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  111. F. J. Och and H. Ney. 2002. Discriminative training and maximum entropy models for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 295--302. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  112. F. J. Och and H. Ney. 2004. The alignment template approach to statistical machine translation. Comput. Linguist. 30, 4 (Dec. 2004), 417--449. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/0891201042544884 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  113. K. Papineni, S. Roukos, T. Ward, and W.-J. Zhu. 2002. BLEU: A method for automatic evaluation of machine translation. In Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'02). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 311--318. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1073083.1073135 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  114. M. Popović, A. de Gispert, D. Gupta, P. Lambert, H. Ney, J. B. Mariño, M. Federico, and R. Banchs. 2006. Morpho-syntactic information for automatic rrror analysis of statistical machine translation output. In Proceedings on the Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 1--6. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  115. M. Popović and H. Ney. 2007. Word error rates: Decomposition over POS classes and applications for error analysis. In Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (StatMT'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 48--55. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  116. M. Popović and H. Ney. 2009. Syntax-oriented evaluation measures for machine translation output. In Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (StatMT'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 29--32. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  117. M. Popović and H. Ney. 2011. Towards automatic error analysis of machine translation output. Comput. Linguist. 37, 4 (Dec. 2011), 657--688. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/COLI_a_00072 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  118. C. Quirk, A. Menezes, and C. Cherry. 2005. Dependency treelet translation: Syntactically informed phrasal SMT. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 271--279. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1219840.1219874 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  119. A. Razmara. 2011. Application of Tree Transducers in Statistical Machine Translation. Technical Report. Depth Report, Simon Fraser University.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  120. J. Riesa, B. Mohit, K. Knight, and D. Marcu. 2006. Building an English-Iraqi Arabic machine translation system for spoken utterances with limited resources. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (INTERSPEECH'06).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  121. E. Ringger, M. Gamon, R. C. Moore, D. Rojas, M. Smets, and S. Corston-Oliver. 2004. Linguistically informed statistical models of constituent structure for ordering in sentence realization. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING'04). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, article 673. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1220355.1220452 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  122. R. Rosa, D. Mareček, and O. Dušek. 2012. DEPFIX: A system for automatic correction of Czech MT outputs. In Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation. Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 362--368. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  123. G. Salton and M. McGill. 1983. Introduction to Modern Information Retrieval. McGraw-Hill. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  124. L. Shao and H. T. Ng. 2004. Mining new word translations from comparable corpora. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING'04). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, article 618. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1220355.1220444 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  125. L. Shen, J. Xu, and R. Weischedel. 2010. String-to-dependency statistical machine translation. Comput. Linguist. 36, 4 (Dec. 2010), 649--671. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00015 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  126. L. Shen, B. Zhang, S. Matsoukas, and R. Weischedel. 2009. Effective use of linguistic and contextual information for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 72--80. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  127. M. Simard, N. Cancedda, B. Cavestro, M. Dymetman, E. Gaussier, C. Goutte, K. Yamada, P. Langlais, and A. Mauser. 2005. Translating with non-contiguous phrases. In Proceedings of the conference on Human Language Technology and Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (HLT'05). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 755--762. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1220575.1220670 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  128. D. A. Smith and J. Eisner. 2006. Quasi-synchronous grammars: Alignment by soft projection of syntactic dependencies. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (StatMT'06). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 23--30. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  129. M. G. Snover, N. Madnani, B. Dorr, and R. Schwartz. 2009. TER-Plus: Paraphrase, semantic, and alignment enhancements to translation edit rate. Machine Translation 23, 2--3 (Sept. 2009), 117--127. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10590-009-9062-9 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  130. S. Stymne. 2011. BLAST: A tool for error analysis of machine translation output. In Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies: Systems Demonstrations. Association for Computer Linguistics, 56--61. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  131. 2009 Thrumair. 2009. Comparing different architectures of hybrid machine translation systems. In Proceedings of the MT-Summit XII.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  132. C. Tillman. 2004. A block orientation model for statistical machine translation. In Proceedings of the Human Language Technology Conference/North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics Annual Meeting (HLT-NAACL'04). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  133. J. P. Turian, B. Wellington, and I. D. Melamed. 2006. Scalable Discriminative learning for natural language parsing and translation. In Proceedings of the 2006 Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS'06). Bernhard Schlkopf, John Platt, and Thomas Hoffman (Eds.). MIT Press, 1409--1416.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  134. N. Ueffing and H. Ney. 2003. Using POS information for statistical machine translation into morphologically rich languages. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference on European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL'03). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 347--354. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  135. A. Venugopal and A. Zollmann. 2009. Grammar based statistical MT on Hadoop: An end-to-end toolkit for large scale PSCFG based MT. In The Prague Bulletin of Mathematical Linguistics No. 91. 67--78.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  136. D. Vilar. 2011. Investigations on Hierarchical Phrase-based Machine Translation. Ph.D. Dissertation. RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  137. D. Vilar, J. Xu, L. Fernando-D'Haro, and H. Ney. 2006. Error analysis of statistical machine translation output. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'06). 697--702.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  138. P. Virga and S. Khudanpur. 2003. Transliteration of proper names in cross-lingual information retrieval. In Proceedings of the ACL 2003 Workshop on Multilingual and Mixed-language Named Entity Recognition, Volume 15 (MultiNER'03). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 57--64. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1119384.1119392 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  139. S. Virpioja, J. J. Väyrynen, M. Creutz, and M. Sadeniemi. 2007. Morphology-aware statistical machine translation based on morphs induced in an unsupervised manner. In Proceedings of the Machine Translation Summit XI. 491--498.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  140. C. Wang, M. Collins, and P. Koehn. 2007. Chinese syntactic reordering for statistical machinetranslation. In Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  141. W. Wang, K. Knight, and D. Marcu. 2006. Capitalizing machine translation. In Proceedings of the Human Language Technology Conference of the NAACL, Main Conference. Association for Computational Linguistics, New York, NY, 1--8. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  142. B. Webber. 2012. Discourse and SMT: Where and How? (Sept. 2012). Seventh Machine Translation Marathon 2012. Invited talk.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  143. D. Wu. 1997. Stochastic inversion transduction grammars and bilingual parsing of parallel corpora. Comput. Linguist. 23, 3 (Sept. 1997), 377--403. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  144. D. Wu. 2009. Toward machine translation with statistics and syntax and semantics. In Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Automatic Speech Recognition & Understanding (ASRU'09). 12--21.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  145. D. Wu and P. Fung. 2009. Semantic roles for SMT: A hybrid two pass model. In Proceedings of the 2009 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (NAACL HLT'09). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  146. F. Xia and M. McCord. 2004. Improving a Statistical MT System with Automatically Learned Rewrite Patterns. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING'04). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  147. K. Yamada and K. Knight. 2002. A decoder for syntax-based statistical MT. In Proceedings of the 40th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'02). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, 303--310. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1073083.1073134 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  148. R. Zens, F. J. Och, and H. Ney. 2002. Phrase-Based Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the German Conference on Artificial Intelligence (KI'02). Springer-Verlag. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  149. H. Zhang and D. Gildea. 2005. Stochastic lexicalized inversion transduction grammar for alignment. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 475--482. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1219840.1219899 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  150. J. Zhang, F. Zhai, and C. Zhing. 2012. Handling unknown words in statistical machine translation from a new perspective. In Proceedings of the NLPCC.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  151. M. Zhang, A. Aw H. Jiang, J. Sun, S. Li, and C. Tan. 2007. A tree-to-tree alignment-based model for SMT. In Proceedings of the MT-Summit. 535--542.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  152. M. Zhang, H. Li, and J. Su. 2004. Direct orthographical mapping for machine transliteration. In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING'04). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, article 716. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1220355.1220458 Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library

Index Terms

  1. Statistical machine translation enhancements through linguistic levels: A survey

    Recommendations

    Comments

    Login options

    Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

    Sign in

    Full Access

    • Published in

      cover image ACM Computing Surveys
      ACM Computing Surveys  Volume 46, Issue 3
      January 2014
      507 pages
      ISSN:0360-0300
      EISSN:1557-7341
      DOI:10.1145/2578702
      Issue’s Table of Contents

      Copyright © 2014 ACM

      Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]

      Publisher

      Association for Computing Machinery

      New York, NY, United States

      Publication History

      • Published: 1 January 2014
      • Accepted: 1 September 2013
      • Revised: 1 June 2013
      • Received: 1 March 2013
      Published in csur Volume 46, Issue 3

      Permissions

      Request permissions about this article.

      Request Permissions

      Check for updates

      Qualifiers

      • research-article
      • Research
      • Refereed

    PDF Format

    View or Download as a PDF file.

    PDF

    eReader

    View online with eReader.

    eReader